From fake followers to sponsored scandals, dives deep into the moral minefield of influencer marketing
The media’s reporting on influencer marketing is rife with moral concerns regarding paying social media influencers.
These influencers leverage their social and cultural capital on social media to sway others’ opinions and purchasing decisions. Our research, based on interviews with fashion industry Instagram influencers, reveals that influencers use “authenticity” as a moral principle when creating sponsored/paid content.
The authenticity ethic underpins influencers’ decision-making on two core principles: first, being true to themselves and their personal brand; and second, being true to their audience by providing them with the content they desire. The authenticity principle guides influencers’ decisions throughout the sponsorship process, as they balance earning income by collaborating with brands while maintaining close and trusting relationships with their audience.
However, unlike practitioners in established media industries such as journalism and advertising, influencers do not have a codified set of ethical principles to guide their work, and instead draw on experiences from various industries and personal backgrounds to construct their own ethical frameworks.
The focus on brand collaborations is so strong that many aspiring influencers create sponsored content for free, and some even post content that appears to be sponsored to attract potential partners . As Interviewee stated, “The beginning was incredibly difficult, though. It required investment, driving traffic, and creating the impression that I was already popular – a real challenge!”
As one blogger mentioned, “Who I collaborate with reflects my own image and the persona I want to establish”, indicating a shared marketing orientation between commercial brands and social media influencers. However, when influencers achieve success, they can often better control their relationships with commercial brands.
According to an influencer, successful bloggers can avoid sponsored content that may impact their authenticity and credibility by exploring alternative income opportunities or leveraging their existing reputation as leverage with commercial brands. However, driven by financial incentives, some internet celebrities and related organizations resort to data falsification tactics to exaggerate their influence.
For instance, some internet celebrities create a false sense of prosperity by purchasing followers, likes, comments, and shares. This data falsification not only deceives advertisers and brands but also misleads the market and consumers, disrupting fair competition in the industry.
However, social media platforms often present a curated version of people’s lives that does not fully align with reality. The tendency on social media is to showcase one’s best possessions and experiences, while the more negative aspects of life are often omitted. This can lead to a sense of disappointment or inadequacy for some users, as they may assume that the content they see on social media is representative of others’ offline lives, when in fact, no one’s life is free of troubles or difficulties.
This phenomenon has also contributed to the proliferation of fabricated “online personas” on Chinese social media. For instance, a participant from the Chinese dating show “If You Are the One”, who claimed to be a vocational school graduate now studying in London, was recently exposed by the university he purported to attend. The university, Nova SBS in Lisbon, Portugal, issued a statement refuting the man’s claims and confirming that he was not enrolled in their international finance master’s program, despite presenting a forged acceptance letter.
The influencers whom followers admire and pursue essentially reflect their aspiration for high social status, which enables them to gain admiration and influence over others. This case highlights how social media can create a disconnect between the projected image and the underlying reality.
The moral framework of authenticity helps influencers balance earning income and prioritizing brands and audiences. However, some influencers have forgotten their social responsibilities after becoming famous, engaging in illegal activities such as tax evasion, false advertising, and copyright infringement. For example, the famous Chinese influencer Viya was exposed for tax evasion and fined $210 million, which severely damaged her image and career. This also distorts the values of young people whose minds are not yet mature.
The root cause of another incident was that the Culture Media company, to which the influencer “Wang Ma” belonged, was found to have unreasonable employee treatment, such as a big and small weekend work system(The schedule forces employees to rotate six-day weeks ‘small week’ with a normal five-day working week ‘big week’.), low salaries, and the need to provide their own computers.
This was in stark contrast to the image Wang Ma had created in her short videos as a voice for the working class. This incident quickly sparked a strong public reaction, with related topics trending on Chinese social media. Netizens questioned whether Wang Ma was exploiting the suffering of workers to gain traffic, while in reality, she was squeezing her employees. Wang Ma’s 60-second video ad cost 600,000 yuan, a sum that many workers would take years to earn, yet she was suspected of arranging a big and small weekend system for her employees, with a monthly salary of only 4,000 yuan and not even paying the legally required social security. This extreme disconnect raised public doubts about the authenticity of the influencer economy.
Although simply adding the #ad tag is a common practice, this may not be sufficient to meet regulatory requirements. According to relevant regulations, such as the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) guidelines, advertising disclosures must be clear, prominent, and easily understandable for the average consumer. This may involve explicitly stating the sponsored nature of the content in the title, using the platform’s designated labels (e.g., Instagram’s “Paid partnership”), or employing other methods suitable for the platform and audience.
For instance, in 2017, the famous Kardashian-Jenner sisters promoted the weight-loss tea FitTea on social media. The National Advertising Division (NAD) found that their disclosures lacked the critical information that this was a paid endorsement. Although the three “super influencers” disclosed that the posts were advertisements on their Instagram and Twitter accounts, the language used was vague and did not clearly state that the brand had paid them, rather than providing samples, to promote the product.
The NAD determined that the distinction between receiving payment and receiving product samples was significant for the audience and that the disclosures did not meet the FTC’s more detailed requirement of “clear and conspicuous” disclosure of material connections. The Kardashian-Jenner sisters promptly acknowledged the error and modified their posts, adding the #spon hashtag, which satisfied the FTC’s requirements.
The ethical cooperation in influencer marketing involves mutual understanding and alignment regarding content information, target audience, and disclosure requirements. The contract should clearly define the scope of collaboration, the influencer’s creative freedom, and the disclosure requirements, protecting both parties.
As mentioned by Junjie Zhang, there can be an inevitable overlap between personal life and curated content, but “I’m careful with what I share. My family, for instance, isn’t part of my online life. It’s about creating boundaries that feel comfortable for me.” Maintaining boundaries and protecting personal privacy is necessary. Additionally, influencers should seek external guidance without hesitation when facing ethical dilemmas. This may involve consulting legal advisors, ethics experts, or professional organizations.
Cultural appropriation refers to the adoption or usage of elements from minority cultures by members of the dominant culture, often without proper understanding or respect for the original cultural context. In the context of influencer marketing, cultural sensitivity involves a nuanced understanding and respect for the subtle differences between various cultures. The use of stereotypical descriptions of certain groups, genders, or sexual orientations is harmful and unethical.
Seemingly harmless images or comments can cause significant offense to individuals within the affected community. Additionally, using slang, idioms, or colloquialisms without proper understanding and context can lead to misunderstandings and offenses. Influencers must avoid cultural appropriation, which involves borrowing or adopting cultural elements without understanding or respecting their original background or meaning. As interviewee 1 stated, “To use elements without understanding and permission is incredibly disrespectful and frankly, rude.”
During a interview with interviewee , she summed up the confusion many feel about cultural appropriation in fashion: “I think the line between cultural appreciation and appropriation is pretty blurry, but for me, it boils down to this: Appreciation is about genuine engagement and collaboration.”
Take, for instance, the cultural significance of the “dreadlocks” or “box braids” hairstyle, commonly associated with Black culture. For many African Americans, these hairstyles are not just a fashion statement but are rooted in history and lived experiences. They serve as a symbol of pride, resilience, and cultural identity. However, when individuals from outside the Black community, particularly celebrities like Justin Bieber, don the same hairstyle, it often sparks controversy.
As critics argued that a white celebrity wearing a traditionally Black hairstyle was a clear example of cultural appropriation. His critics pointed out that Black individuals who wear dreadlocks or natural hair are often discriminated against or forced to conform to Eurocentric beauty standards. Yet, when non-Black individuals adopt these hairstyles, they are celebrated as fashion-forward or trendy. This unequal treatment lies at the heart of the appropriation issue—cultural symbols lose their significance when they are removed from their context and commodified for mainstream consumption.
The impact of cultural appropriation and the effectiveness of strategies to mitigate it vary significantly across different cultures. Cultures with strong collectivist values may be particularly sensitive to behaviors perceived as disrespectful or exploitative of cultural heritage.
In December 2019, Liziqi’s fans and critics engaged in a debate over her portrayal of rural China as “authentic,” “backward,” and “affected” in her YouTube video blog. Whyke et al. analyzed her depiction of traditional cuisine, handicrafts, and values within the framework of Buhmann and Ingenhoff’s 4D model of national image, examining it from both aesthetic and normative perspectives. The discussion includes whether her performance enhances or distorts Chinese cultural heritage.
While her work has been positively received, the authors acknowledge criticisms of the potential idealization or “Othering” of rural life, referring to the problematic Orientalist depiction of “unabashed romanticization of rural life” or “pristine traditional attire” that remains unblemished despite the arduous agricultural work.
Cultural customs may not merely serve as aesthetic or decorative elements but could be deeply rooted in the spiritual or historical significance of a community. In this regard, interviewee stated that，“For a project I was working on, I needed to feature Miao minority clothing and silverwork. I reached out to people from the Miao culture in China to get it right. I wanted to understand the significance of the clothing and jewelry, not just the aesthetics. It was incredibly enriching – I learned so much about their history, traditions, and the meaning behind the intricate details of their craftsmanship. ”
In contrast, cultures with a stronger emphasis on individualistic values may have different thresholds for what constitutes acceptable cultural appropriation, as they may lack the nuanced understanding of power dynamics and systemic inequalities.The “I Take Responsibility” campaign in 2020, which involved numerous white celebrity participants, was criticized as an inauthentic gesture towards social justice movements.
Although well-intentioned, the campaign was interpreted as performative, leading to accusations of cultural appropriation and virtue signaling. Initiatives that involve genuine partnerships with marginalized community members can demonstrate greater authenticity, such as Nike’s campaign featuring Colin Kaepernick. However, even successful campaigns like Nike’s are subject to scrutiny regarding the brand’s overall ethical practices. This touches upon certain consumers’ perceptions of the nation, patriotism, and social order.
The regulatory framework for managing advertising disclosure in China is primarily reflected in the Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China (2018 Amendment). This law stipulates that all advertisements must be truthful, legal, and non-misleading. According to Article 55 of the Advertising Law, if false advertising is published, the market supervision and management department will confiscate the advertising fees and impose a fine of more than three times but not more than five times the advertising fees. If the advertising fees cannot be calculated or are clearly too low, a fine of more than 200,000 yuan but not more than 1 million yuan will be imposed. Additionally, if there are three or more violations within two years or other serious circumstances, the fine will be doubled.The Measures for the Administration of Internet Advertising, which came into effect on May 1, 2023, stipulate in Article 9, Paragraph 3 that for the promotion of goods or services through the forms of knowledge introduction, experience sharing, and consumption evaluation, with attached purchase links, the advertisement publisher should clearly mark “Advertisement”.
Additionally, the Interim Provisions on Prohibiting Unfair Competition on the Internet, issued by the State Administration for Market Regulation and effective as of September 1, 2024, explicitly prohibit “the use of cash back, red envelopes, coupons, and other means to induce users to engage in designated positive reviews, likes, and targeted voting interactions” in Article 9, Paragraph 5 .
In the Chinese social media platform Xiaohongshu (Little Red Book), new regulations were issued on October 1, 2024, prohibiting the publication or promotion of third-party product information or inducement to third-party platforms in any scenario where consumers are exposed to or interact with, which may result in harassment of consumers or affect the safety of consumer transactions, thereby harming the legitimate rights and interests of consumers. The Xiaohongshu platform will reduce the store status and traffic, as well as impose penalty fees, store expulsions, and account suspensions.
TikTok prohibits advertisements that contain adult content, alcohol, dangerous products or services, deceptive behavior, discrimination, harassment, or bullying. These advertisements must display complete and accurate information, including contact details, company name, address, business license, local currency pricing, delivery information, return and refund policies, terms and conditions, and a privacy policy. The privacy policy must be clearly displayed and easily accessible. Advertisements must also comply with applicable data protection regulations. Additionally, TikTok prohibits the publication of misleading or deceptive content, the promotion of violent or dangerous activities, and the infringement of intellectual property rights .
The Instagram advertising disclosure policy stipulates that, aside from mandatory advertising labels, creators must not accept any form of compensation to post content that they did not personally create or contribute to. The platform prohibits the promotion of content that violates community guidelines, illegal products or services, tobacco products, drugs, and content related to social issues, elections, or politics, as outlined in their advertising policies. The promotion of certain sensitive content, such as alcohol, subscription services, credit products, weight loss products, or cosmetic procedures, requires additional restrictions and targeted age and geographic placements to ensure compliance with applicable laws and regulations. Furthermore, some types of commercial partners, including online dating services, real-money gambling, pharmacies, prescription drugs, cryptocurrency products and services, and addiction treatment centers, require written permission from Meta to conduct brand content promotion on Instagram. Instagram also prohibits the inclusion of pre-roll, mid-roll, or post-roll advertisements within video or audio content, as well as the insertion of banner advertisements within videos or images.
Although certain strategies may be considered unethical by journalists or other media professionals, the influencers we interviewed expressed that their ethical framework stems from a different set of standards, and they have their own perceptions of unethical behavior. For instance, Interviewee 1 stated, “If it doesn’t align with my values, it doesn’t matter how good the offer is—I won’t take it,” highlighting the subjectivity of “ethics” in the world of influencer marketing. Interviewee 1 indicated, “…success on TikTok means understanding the rules and working within them—while also being creative and finding ways to engage your audience.” This suggests that success requires understanding these ambiguities and finding ways to promote products without explicitly violating the rules, even if such promotion appears unethical to external observers.
“There was a brand that had some ethical issues I didn’t know about. I apologized to my followers and explained what happened.” This also highlights the lack of due diligence by influencers, with the implicit motivation being to ensure collaborative relationships without properly assessing potential risks. As one influencer stated, if the recommended product experience is poor, but she does not want to forgo the signing income, “I might not say negative things, but the audience can judge if it is not good”, Black Liu. However, she considers this indirect evaluation not as a form of unethical self-censorship, but as a service representing the audience, providing them with the most useful content, while also aligning with the influencer’s goals. This suggests that they prioritize economic interests, and apologies attempt to mitigate such harm, but the harm itself highlights a lack of accountability towards their audience.